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Action Research
Action research grew out of attempts to acquire knowledge that would help change social systems. It was essentially a theory-based approach grounded in real life that, in simplified form, consisted of a cyclical process of conducting an investigation, taking action based on the results of that enquiry, followed by evaluation of the improvements in the situation under consideration. It has been developed further in organisational (Burke, 1994) and educational research (Stringer, 2003) and different forms have evolved.
Action research requires intervention in order to study impact of change on a given situation and thereby understand the situation under consideration. A number of forms have been developed in different domains since its origins in the social sciences in the 1940s.
Action Research Electronic Reader http://www.scu.edu.au/schools/gcm/ar/arr/arow/default.html
Data Collection and Analysis Methods
Conversation analysis
The study of naturally occurring talk-in-interaction in order to discover how we produce an orderly social world. CA provides an account of the machinery in operation within talk by a fine-grained analysis of talk. It does not refer to context or motive unless they are explicitly deployed in the talk itself. Conversation analysis has developed a highly sophisticated form of transcription notation (q.v.) to support its fine-grained analysis.
Discourse analysis
A study of the way versions or the world, society, events and psyche are produced in the use of language and discourse. The Foucauldian version is concerned with the construction of subjects within various forms of knowledge/power. Semiotics, deconstruction and narrative analysis are forms of discourse analysis. Further reading: Hammersley, M. (2002), Discourse analysis: A Bibliographical Guide
http://www.cf.ac.uk/socsi/capacity/Activities/Themes/In-depth/guide.pdf
Drawing process analysis
A new kind of pen allows us to examine the drawing process in more detail. With a commercial digital pen and special paper, we can record a designer's pen strokes, and use its "instant replay" software to see how a picture was constructed.
Digital Sketching Website (in progress) http://www.uoregon.edu/~arch/digsketch/
Interviews
The interview technique is a systematic collection of verbal information. It consists in asking about users opinions and attitudes to get basic information with prepared questions asked by the interviewer. The answers are either written or recorded. The interviews can be structured or unstructured. The terms structured interviews implies that the content of the interview, in terms of the questions and their sequence, is predefined. Because of the structuring the interview offers the opportunity for more systematic collection data. The unstructured interview is more open-ended, and the interviewee develops the themes proposed by the interviewer. Further reading:
http://www.ul.ie/~infopolis/methods/interv.html
Survey
Surveys are used to collect quantitative information about items in a population. Surveys of human populations and institutions are common in political polling and government, health, social science and marketing research. Survey may focus on opinions or factual information depending on its purpose. On-line resource about how to conduct surveys: http://www.managementhelp.org/commskls/surveys/surveys.htm
Observation
Observations can be conducted of individual behaviour or interactions among individuals, of events or of physical conditions within a site or facility. They require well-trained observers and detailed guidelines about whom or what to observe, when and for how long and by what method of recording. The primary advantage of observation is its validity. When done well, observation is considered a strong data collection method because it generates first-hand, unbiased information by individuals who have been trained on what to look for and how to record it. Observation does require time—for development of the observation tool, training of the observers and the data collection—making it a more costly data collection method than some of the others. Further reading:
http://www.acf.dhhs.gov/programs/ccf/resources/gbk_om/om_gbk_dcm.html
Protocol analysis
Protocol analysis is a rigorous methodology for eliciting verbal reports of thought sequences as a valid source of data on thinking. It is used to gather data in usability testing in product design and development, in psychology and a range of social sciences.Further reading:
Ericsson, K.A. & Simon, H.A. (1993), “Protocol Analysis: Verbal Reports as Data”, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Software for Data Analysis
The need for handling large qualities of observational data has given rise to software applications that allow the researcher to collate the audio, video, text material and perform various forms of qualitative and quantitative analysis.
Computer aided qualitative data analysis packages such as NVivo 2.0 do not directly support the analysis of video. Other tools that do support video, such as Atlas/ti, Qualrus and Hyper Research, are designed to work with small edited video clips, not with large libraries of raw or unedited videos. Transana handles videos more effectively than the mentioned ones and it is largely used because it is freeware, on the other hand Observer and Interact are higher end, more professional software which offer more flexibility for data collection and analysis across many disciplines.
NVivo where data are stored as sets of text documents, which can include field notes, interview transcripts, communications between individuals (especially email communications), and any other form of textual data. It is a text based analysis tool, which does not provide us with the synchronous analysis of audio video data.
Atlas.ti is an application for the visual qualitative analysis of large bodies of textual, graphical and audio video data. The software supports all areas of document based research and works with video, image, audio data attached to text. HyperRESEARCH which enables the coding of any type of source including text, audio, video and image. HyperRESEARCH™ is a qualitative data analysis software package enabling users to code and retrieve, build theories, and conduct analyses of observational data. Recently with advanced multimedia capabilities, HyperRESEARCH allows users to work with text, graphics, audio, and video sources. The video recordings or captured images could be attached to text records to support heterogeneous analysis (more information can be found at on web site Transana is a free software for analyzing video and audio data. User can organize video clips (from the same or from different video files) into meaningful categories, as a mechanism for developing and expanding the theoretical understanding of what the video shows. The software allows one to apply searchable analytic keywords to these video clips. Search tools allow data mining and hypothesis testing across large video collections. It is also possible to share analytic markup with distant colleagues to facilitate collaborative analysis (more information can be found on transana web site .
Observer (by Noldus) is for the collection, analysis, presentation and management of observational data. Noldus, providing a wide range of features for instrumentation for data collection and analysis, their software Observer can be applied to study observable behavior such as activities, postures, gestures, facial expressions, movements, and social or human-system interactions. The latest version of Observer integrates analysis of textual data and handling transcripts to the video data. Observer also integrates different data collection techniques with accessories to suit different research environments (field/ lab/ dynamic) such as event logging interface, eye trackers, mobile device camera, spectacles camera, and so on. Specific data collection and analysis tools vary according to the needs of the discipline (Neuroscience, Psychology, Zoology, Usability) and Observer XT provides with add-in tools to satisfy these needs. U-Log, logging tool, automatically records user computer interaction, EthoVision, a video tracking system is used for automatic recording of activity, movement and interactions of animals; and Theme is used for detection and analysis of patterns in time-based analysis. More information can be found at Noldus .
INTERACT is a software tool that helps you to save hundreds of hours of time during analysis of video recordings and live observations, offering sophisticated logging and analysis methods. Interact can be used to study observable behavior such as activities, postures, gestures, facial expressions, movements, and social or human-system interactions. With Interact it is possible to record events (segments of information based on video) independent of a method. Events can be logged simultaneously in one video, and the ways to achieve it very flexible. Interact allows annotation, integration of text/ transcripts connected to the videos events, and it can handle any type of multimedia file as well as the functionality to control video devices directly. Interact has add-ins for specific research disciplines (Neuro Science, Psychology, animal behavior, Usability). With Data view user can display any kind of externally acquired data synchronously to the video recordings, such as physiological information, or data acquired by mechanical systems. With Sound Analyzer user can identify parts automatically whenever special audio events happen e.g. where a person is speaking. With Highlight Movie Creator user can combine all video events where a specific action occurs and makes them into one video file. With the use of PATTERN add-on, the user can discover and quantify behavioral patterns in the observational data. The recent add-on, LogSqare records information about user activities and screen content in human-computer interaction studies. More information can be found at http://www.mangold.de
Video-cued Recall
Video-cued recall or retrospective reporting is a method for collecting verbal data commonly used for investigating human cognitive processes. Because reports are made after the experience, this method is regarded as having less impact on cognitive processes than concurrent think-aloud methods. Reporting retrospectively, however, presents the risk that the participant will forget details and that their recall will be interpretively filtered. The video cued-recall method helps to avoid these pitfalls by using video to help the participant recall the detail of their experience and avoid selective interpretation.
Evidence In order to support your claims, you need to provide an appropriate form of evidence.
Evidence can be acquired by three main approaches:
• Argumentation
• Proof
• Empirical
Evidence by Argument
• Argumentation
The act of forming reasons, making inductions, drawing conclusions, and applying them to the case in discussion; the operation of inferring propositions, not known or admitted as true, from facts or principles known, admitted, or proved to be true
Evidence by Proof
• Legal definition
Proof is the perfection of evidence, for without evidence there is no proof, although, there may be evidence which does not amount to proof: for example, a man is found murdered at a spot where another had been seen walking but a short time before, this fact would be evidence to show that the latter was the murderer, but, standing alone, would be very far from proof of it.
• Mathematical definition
Proof - a formal series of statements showing that if one thing is true something else necessarily follows from it, as in Euclidean Geometry or Mathematical Logic
Empirical Evidence
Empirical evidence is needed for research that bases its findings on direct or indirect observation as its test of reality.
Evidence is acquired by:
• Observational Studies
• Situated studies
• People and technology interaction in context
• Practitioner accounts
• Personal reflections on activities and events
• Observer viewpoints
• Independent perspective on participant actions
Experimental Research
Experimental research involves testing hypotheses by manipulating variables within a controlled situation
• Experimental Design
• Hypothesis Testing
• Controlled Variables
• Laboratory Environment
• Statistical Tests
• Empirical Evidence
Gödel’s theorem
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gödel's_incompleteness_theorem
Interactive Art and Research Practice
Studying art is recognised as a historical or critical scholarly activity rather than a natural subject for field research. By its very nature, interactive art has particular characteristics that necessitate a different form of inquiry to conventional areas of discourse in this field. The involvement of the audience in the active experience of the work, for one thing, is a radical departure from normal expectations of our relationship to art works. Some artists view audience interaction as an integral part of the work itself and are not only keen to learn from that behaviour but also wish to engage with the audience directly. In both audience and artist collaborative experience, a process of evaluation takes place, an activity that requires systematic forms of information, analysis and reflection. The evaluation of an emerging interactive artwork or system is analogous with the development of an interactive software system using user-centred design methods. In creative work there is a dual need: for best results, the work should be carried out in as realistic (naturalistic) setting as possible and, at the same time, the results should provide an opportunity to turn what is learnt into modifications in the evolving art system. There are some important constraints that differentiate the normal process of creating art from the research-oriented approach. Artists working in a studio are in a natural setting for them but for research to be effective the gathering of information is critical and this imposes constraints upon the way of working. Artists working in a public space learn from the audience’s behaviour as they interact with the new work. How they learn and discoveries that inform their work is both a new area of creative practice and a source of knowledge for the wider community.
Practice-based Research
Practice-based Research is an original investigation undertaken in order to gain new knowledge partly by means of practice. In a doctoral thesis, claims of originality and contribution to knowledge may be demonstrated through creative outcomes in the form of artefacts such as painting, music, designs, models, digital media, or creative events such as performances, installations and exhibitions. Whilst the significance and context of that knowledge is described in words, a full understanding of it can only be obtained with reference to those outcomes. The textual description includes documentation of the research process, as well as textual analysis or explanation to support its position and to demonstrate critical reflection.
Practice-led Research
Practice-led research is concerned with the nature of practice and results in new knowledge that has operational significance for that practice. Such research includes practice as an integral part of its method and often falls within the general area of action research. The results of practice-led research may be fully described in text without the inclusion of an artefact. These are not practice-based doctorates of the type that include artefacts and works, although the focus of the research can be to advance knowledge about practice, or to advance knowledge within practice.
Practice-Based Research Methods
Practice-based researchers should devise a clear set of methods and techniques for collecting data and analysing data. An important initial task is to identify the key elements of their personal process which they intend to include in the data to be collected:
• Initial starting points or motivation for the project or work.
• Prior models or theories about how to create, perform or realise a creative artefact, act or outcome…
• Time frame for the work or works to be created, performed, realised.
• Role of the creative artefact in the creative process.
• Environments and tools required to achieved the output
• Information to be gathered about the thinking, methods, tools, resources, support, collaboration…
• Methods for collecting and collating data gathered
• Methods for analysing collated data
• Expected outcomes of the research process
• Relationship of the practice outcomes to the argument of the thesis.
Reflective Practice
The concept of reflective practice (Schön, 1983) provides a link between action research and practice-based research. Schön is concerned with an individual’s reflection on his or her own professional practice as distinct from the early forms of action research which were concerned with situations more broadly. The combination of action research and reflective practice is an approach widely adopted in educational research by teacher-researchers who might equally call this form of research ‘practice-led’. Today a new generation of researchers in the creative arts are pursuing both practice-based and practice-led research.
Usability Studies
ISO 9241 Usability Standard
“The extent to which a product can be used by specified users to achieve specified goals with effectiveness, efficiency and satisfaction in a specified context of use.” (Harker, 1995)
Provides a definition of the qualities of software systems in terms of the benefit to users, tasks and organisational goals. Test criteria in the form of measures and metrics have been developed from the ISO base criteria of task effectiveness and efficiency and user satisfaction (Thomas and Bevan, 1995).
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